Exploring Schools of Thought in Psychology and Their Impact on Vocational Rehabilitation Counselling

Vocational rehabilitation counselling plays a vital role for individuals seeking to return to work or school after facing obstacles like illness, disability, or personal challenges. The various approaches and methods used in this field can affect the results for clients. To grasp these influences, it is important to examine the different schools of thought in psychology that shape vocational rehabilitation counselling.

Historical Overview of Psychological Schools of Thought in Vocational Rehabilitation Counselling

Psychology is the study of the human mind and functioning as it relates to behaviour. It explores how people think, feel, and act, both consciously and unconsciously. It is of concern for vocational rehabilitation counsellors because they provide psychosocial and vocational services to clients.

Practicing vocational rehabilitation professionals need to understand the major schools of psychology to have a basic understanding of how and why people think and behave the way they do. Understanding the history of psychological schools is key to modern vocational rehabilitation practices. The evolution of psychology can be grouped into several main schools, each contributing ideas and techniques that enhance the rehabilitation process.

Structuralism

Structuralism seeks to analyze the adult mind (the total sum of experience from birth to the present) in terms of the simplest definable components. It is interested in finding out how these components fit together as a system to form more complex experiences. It is also concerned with how these components are related to physical events. To do this, psychologists employ introspection, self-reports of sensations, views, feelings, emotions, and more.

Two of the important people associated with Structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of experimental psychology and pioneer of cultural psychology; and Edward Titcherner, known for creating the version of psychology that described the structure of the mind.

Psychoanalytic & Psychodynamic Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century. It highlights the impact of unconscious processes, defenses, and childhood experiences on behavior. These models of therapy originated with Freud's concepts of free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference-countertransference.

These concepts are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts, in order to free psychic energy for mature relationships and work. Other key figures associated with this area and Psychodynamic approaches include Carl Jung (Analytic Psychology), Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology), and Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Development).

Some of the other important concepts that evolved from Freud's Psychoanalytic theory included:

• The personality structures of the id, the ego, and the superego.

• The oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages of development.

• The various defense mechanisms including repression, reaction formation, projection, sublimation, regression, rationalization, denial, displacement, and compensation.

• Phobias (an overwhelming and unreasonable fear of an object or situation that provokes anxiety and avoidance) and resistance (oppositional behavior when an person's unconscious defenses of the ego are threatened by an external source).

Two key concepts associated with Carl Jung's Analytic Psychology included Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Alfred Adler's Individual Psychology focused on personality difficulties rooted in feelings of inferiority from restrictions on the individual's need for self-assertion. Adler believed a person's early experiences as a child generate their worldview or perspective. He believed in the importance of birth order in personal development.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Development theory was concerned with the epigenetic principle in personality theory. This principle emphasized human development progressing in the following sequential stages: trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role diffusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, and integrity vs despair.

In vocational rehabilitation, focusing on internal conflicts is essential. Many clients may struggle with past trauma or unresolved emotional issues that hinder their ability to find or maintain employment. For instance, many individuals with a history of trauma or adverse childhood experiences face difficulties in the workplace due to unresolved issues. This can lead to difficulties with emotional regulation, negative or distorted perceptions of self or others, and distrust in interpersonal relationships.

Using knowledge of psychoanalytic and psychodynamic theories, vocational counsellors can better understand clients and support them with some of these challenges. This can pave the way for less conflict and more success in work.

Additionally, understanding a client’s motivations can illuminate their job choices. Many decisions arise from unconscious desires. By recognizing this, counsellors can guide their clients in a way that leads to more fulfilling job selections.

Behavioral Psychology

Behaviorism is associated with figures like Edwin Guthrie (Contiguity Theory), Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning), Joseph Wolpe (Systematic Desensitization), and B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning). It focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. This school of thought is also referred to as the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behaviour). It is a philosophy of psychology based on the idea that everything an organism does (including acting and thinking) is regarded as behavior. This would mean that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior patterns or modifying the environment.

According to behaviorism, an individual's response to different environmental stimuli shapes their behaviours, including career choice. Behaviorists believe behavior can be studied in a methodical and recognizable manner with no consideration needed for reflecting on internal mental or psychological states. The behavioral school of thought believes that behaviors can be described scientifically. It takes the position that all theories should have observational components, but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly and privately observable processes.

In vocational rehabilitation, behaviorist techniques like classical conditioning (conditioned/unconditioned stimulus or response and extinction), operant conditioning (positive/negative reinforcement, avoidance learning, positive/negative punishment, extinction), and systematic desensitization, can be quite effective. For instance, reinforcement can encourage and increase the frequency of desirable behavior in clients with developing workplace skills. A counsellor could reinforce punctuality through praise or rewards, leading to more consistent attendance and productivity at work.

Practical training sessions grounded in behaviorist principles also help clients learn essential job skills in real-world environments. This is particularly important for those who struggle with learning and adaptability. By concentrating on observable behaviors, vocational rehabilitation can track measurable improvements, helping clients transition back to work more smoothly.

Existential & Humanistic Psychology

Rollo May is often referred to as the "father" of existential psychology. He introduced existentialism to American psychology and played a significant role in developing existential-humanistic therapy. Søren Kierkegaard, on the other hand, is regarded as the "father of existentialism" in philosophy. May adapted these ideas and applied them to the field of psychology.

The key principle in this type of therapy is that psychological dysfunction and mental

illness are nonexistent. Any manifestation of “being” is simply an expression of how one chooses to live. The important issues for existential therapists are choices and coming to terms with the resulting anxieties. Focus is on the here-and-now.

The goals of existential therapy are:

• Increase the client's awareness and understanding of goals, purposes and responsibility for personal actions.

• Acceptance of freedom.

• Use of normal anxiety to promote growth.

An important figure associated with Existential Psychology is Viktor Frankl, the founder of Logo Therapy. Logo Therapy is founded upon the belief that it is the striving to find a meaning in one's life that is the primary, most powerful motivating and driving force in humans. The following list of tenets represents basic principles of this therapy:

• Life has meaning under all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.

• Our main motivation for living is our will to find meaning in life.

• We have freedom to find meaning in what we do, and what we experience, or at least in how we respond when faced with a situation of unchangeable suffering.

Another important figure who is sometimes associated with both existential and humanistic psychology, is Abraham Maslow. He developed the "hierarchy of needs" which was related to self-actualization. His hierarchy of needs includes:

1. The first level of this hierarchy placed basic or physiological needs (food and water) at the bottom.

2. The second level is safety needs (security, order, stability).

3. The third level is the need for love and belonging.

4. The fourth level is the esteem level.

5. The fifth level is cognitive needs (intellectual stimulation).

6. The sixth level is aesthetic needs (harmony, order, beauty).

7. The sixth level, at the top of the hierarchy, is the need for self-actualization (a state of harmony and understanding from achieving full potential).

Humanistic psychology emerged in the mid-20th century, with influential figures like Carl Rogers (Person-Centered Therapy) and Abraham Maslow. It highlighting the importance of personal growth and self-actualization. Other relevant figures include Arnold Lazarus (founder of Multimodal Therapy) and Fritz Perls (founder of Gestalt Therapy), and to a lesser extent, Eric Berne (Transactional Analysis).

This school of thought rejected determinism and emphasized subjective meaning and positive growth. Humanistic therapy departed from the psychodynamic and behavioral schools of psychotherapy. Growth, potential, and self-fulfillment are the primary focus in humanistic therapy. The unconscious and environmental issues are considered, but freedom of choice in creating one’s experience is essential.

Carl Rogers developed Person-Centered Therapy and viewed human nature as basically good. He believed that if given the appropriate environment of acceptance, warmth and empathy, the individual would move towards self-actualization. Self-actualization is the motivation that makes the individual move toward growth, meaning, and purpose.

Rogers believed that there are six conditions which are necessary and efficient for changes to occur:

• Two persons are in physiological contact.

• The client is experiencing incongruence.

• The vocational rehabilitation counsellor is congruent or integrated in the relationship.

• The counsellor experiences unconditional positive regard or real caring for the client.

• The counsellor experiences empathy for the client’s internal frame of reference and communicates this to the client.

• The communication to the client is, to a minimal degree, achieved.

The vocational rehabilitation counsellor interacts with individuals in a genuine and nonjudgmental manner. Using the three characteristics and core conditions of congruence (or genuineness), unconditional positive regard, and accurate empathy, the counsellor guides the client to a place where their perceptions of self are more consistent with their actual self.

In vocational rehabilitation counselling, a humanistic approach is crucial. It encourages clients to explore their potential, values, and aspirations related to work. Counsellors using this approach prioritize active listening, reflection, and respect for a client’s autonomy.

For example, when working with clients who feel disconnected from their career goals, a counsellor may guide them in discovering their intrinsic motivations. This self-exploration can reignite their passion and commitment to long-term employment success.

Cognitive-Behavioral Theory

Cognitive-behavioral theory (CBT) was developed by Aaron Beck. It emphasizes the interplay and relationship between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. This approach is especially useful within vocational rehabilitation as it provides methods for clients to reframe negative thoughts and cultivate productive thinking patterns.

The key principles in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy are that maladaptive behaviours are associated with patterns of thinking and response that do not result in mentally healthy outcomes. The focus of therapy is on the present rather than the past. The central premise is that behaviour is maintained by the following consequences:

• Consequences that accelerate behaviours are called reinforcers.

• Consequences that decelerate behaviours are called punishers.

Beck's CBT theory involves the identification of automatic thoughts (similar to preconscious). Both cognitive therapy and the Beck Depression Inventory utilize a client’s thought patterns or cognitive schemas. The negatively oriented internal dialog of depressed individuals results in low self-esteem and negative self- concept. Beck believed a client's difficulties are a result of a distorted construction of reality on three levels:

1. View of Self.

2. View of Experiences.

3. View of the Future.

When a client’s thinking is modified, biochemical changes occur in the brain relieving feelings of depression. This therapy is most effective for clients with phobias and/or depression.

Other important figures associated with CBT include Donald Meichenbaum (Self-Talk Techniques and Thought Journal Writing) and Albert Ellis (Rational-Emotive Behavioral Therapy or REBT, with the ABC model technique that outlines how an activating event (A) leads to a belief (B) about the event, which results in an emotional or behavioral consequence (C).

CBT techniques can address the anxiety and self-doubt that often accompany job searching or returning to work. A counsellor might assist a client overwhelmed by thoughts of failure in developing realistic goals, which can include steps such as balancing work-life commitments or preparing for job interviews. Clients using CBT techniques often report an increase in confidence during the job search, application, and interviewing stages.

By guiding clients to identify and change cognitive distortions, such as catastrophizing, CBT helps build resilience, a critical skill for navigating today's job market.

Reality Therapy Psychology

Reality Therapy is a client-centered approach with roots in Cognitive Behavioral Psychology. Founder William Glasser maintains that people act on a conscious level and that they are not driven by instincts and the unconscious. He felt that there is a health-growth force in every person that seeks both physical and psychological health or growth. He separates these into the old brain (or primitive physical needs) and into the new brain (or psychological needs). While the old brain is content with maintaining life, the new brain seeks belonging, power, freedom and fun.

Reality Therapy teaches that behaviour involves thinking, feeling, doing and physiology. There are nine basic steps involved in Reality Therapy:

1. The vocational rehabilitation counsellor establishes a friendly relationship with the client and then finds out what he/she/they want.

2. The vocational rehabilitation counsellor and client determine what the client is doing to achieve their desired end goal.

3. The vocational rehabilitation counsellor helps the client evaluate how effective his/her/their behavior is to achieve the goal.

4. The vocational rehabilitation counsellor helps the client make a plan to gain effective control over the situation and environment.

5. The vocational rehabilitation counsellor gets a commitment from the client to follow through on the plan.

6. Excuses for failure are not accepted.

7. If possible, the vocational rehabilitation counsellor sets reasonable consequences if the plan is not carried out, such as temporary restrictions of freedom or temporary removal of privileges.

8. The client is not allowed to control the vocational rehabilitation counsellor by simply giving up.

9. If one plan does not work, the vocational rehabilitation counsellor and client amend it or create another, until the client implements a plan and begins to take control of his/her/their life.

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura's social learning theory combines behaviorism with cognitive psychology, emphasizing the role of observational learning and imitation.

This theory is particularly relevant in vocational rehabilitation since many job skills are learned through social interactions and modeling. Encouraging clients to observe and connect with role models in their desired fields can inspire them while clarifying job expectations. For example, clients who engage with mentors report an increase in job skills and confidence.

Group therapy sessions also effectively employ social learning principles. By creating a supportive atmosphere where clients can share their stories, they can learn from one another, enhancing their collective growth. Such community connections often help dispel feelings of isolation, a common obstacle in vocational rehabilitation.

Constructivist Psychology

Constructivist psychology, influenced by theorists like Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, asserts that individuals build knowledge through their experiences.

In vocational rehabilitation, this perspective highlights the importance of customized experiences in learning. Recognizing that each client faces challenges uniquely, counsellors can create tailored interventions that respect individual learning styles and experiences.

For instance, a constructivist approach may involve working collaboratively with clients on setting their rehabilitation goals. Clients actively defining their journey fosters a sense of ownership, significantly contributing to successful job placement rates.

A collection of educational reference books on psychology covering various schools of thought.

Summary of Key Insights

The integration of diverse psychological schools of thought greatly enhances vocational rehabilitation counselling. Each approach—be it structuralist, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic, behavioristic, humanistic, cognitive-behavioral, realistic, social learning, or constructivist and multicultural, provides valuable insights and methods that cater to the varied needs of clients.

By grasping these foundational theories, vocational rehabilitation counsellors can offer a comprehensive approach. This goes beyond skill development to address the psychological hurdles many clients face. Such a holistic viewpoint is vital for achieving sustainable employment outcomes and fulfilling career paths for those overcoming personal challenges.

As the work environment continually evolves, incorporating these psychological perspectives into vocational rehabilitation remains crucial. Doing so allows us to better support individuals in realizing their full potential and meaningfully reintegrating into the workforce.